Stoicism
The most common meaning of the word stoic is a person who remains unmoved by the sorrows and afflictions that distress the rest of humanity.
They believed that all human beings have a capacity for a reason hence they all can pursue virtue and wisdom; while Aristotle has said that only a few can reason.
Plato held that human passions and physical desires need regulation by reason. The Stoics went further: they rejected passions altogether as a basis for deciding what is good or bad.
Although physical desires cannot simply be abolished, the wise person will appreciate the difference between wanting something and judging it to be good. Only reason can judge the goodness or badness of what is desired.
If one is wise, he will identify himself with reason rather than with desire; hence, he will not hope for the satisfaction of physical desires or worry that they might not be satisfied. The Stoic will feel physical pain as others do, but he will know that physical pain leaves the true reasoning self-untouched. The only truly good thing is to live in a state of wisdom and virtue.
Perhaps the most important legacy of Stoicism, however, is its conviction that all human beings share the capacity to reason.
The belief that the capacity to reason is common to all humans was also important because from it the Stoics drew the implication that there is a universal moral law. The Stoics thus strengthened the tradition that regarded the universality of reason as the basis on which to reject ethical relativism.
The only thing that is profoundly good is an excellent rational mental state which can be achieved through reason and virtue. Money, fame, and success are good but often transitory.
One should live harmoniously with nature. One should acknowledge that they are a small part of a larger organic whole and process, which are out of our control. We can change many things, but there are some things we cannot change, and we must accept this fact. Control over internal emotions and judgement can only lead to happiness. If we try to control external things over which we have no control, we are bound to get frustrated.
Saint Augustine & his Idea of FREE WILL
According to him, God created human beings as rational beings who can distinguish between good and bad. God has given them complete freedom to choose and perform actions. So, if a person does something wrong, the responsibility lies with him and not God. WI
Thomas Aquinas
He was a virtue ethicist and supporter of Plato & Aristotle. He believes in four cardinal virtues but added three more: Faith, Hope and Charity. His three virtues, along with four of Plato, became seven virtues of Christianity:
- Prudence
- Temperance
- Courage
- Justice
- Hope
- Faith
- Charity
Just war Theory
- War should be the last resort.
- War should be a defence against aggression or an attempt to stop atrocity.
- The expected good must outweigh the cost of killing and destruction.
Rene Descartes
Reason is sufficient in searching for the goods we should seek, and virtue consists of the correct reasoning that should guide our actions.
I think, therefore, I am
Jean Paul Sarte PAUL SARTE
Individuals must be concerned with ethics rather than society because individuals impact society.
Epicureans
True, the Epicureans regarded pleasure as the sole ultimate good and pain as the sole evil, and they did regard the more refined pleasures as superior, simply in terms of the quantity and durability of the pleasure they provided, to the coarser pleasures.
By refined pleasures, Epicurus meant pleasures of the mind, as opposed to the coarse pleasures of the body. He taught that the highest pleasure obtainable is the pleasure of tranquillity, which is to be obtained by the removal of unsatisfied wants. The way to do this is to eliminate all but the simplest wants; these are then easily satisfied even by those who are not wealthy.
Epicurus developed his position systematically. To determine whether something is good, he would ask whether it increased pleasure or reduce pain. If it did, it was good as a means; if it did not, it was not good at all. Thus, justice was good but merely as an expedient arrangement to prevent mutual harm. Why not then commit injustice when we can get away with it?
Only because Epicurus says, the perpetual dread of discovery will cause painful anxiety.
Epicurus also exalted friendship and the Epicureans were famous for the warmth of their relationships; but, again, they proclaimed that friendship is good only because it tends to create pleasure.
It gives hope of infinite progress to every man. It accords man a sense of Sacredness and dignity unknown to other religions. It teaches that man is essentially divine. Hence his salvation must come from within.
The Advantages of Virtue Ethics
- Virtue ethics offers a broader conception of ethics in general.
- It avoids the inflexibilities of rule-oriented ethics.
- Because it is concerned with character, and with what kind of person one is, virtue ethics pays more attention to our inner states and feelings as opposed to focusing exclusively on actions.
- Virtue ethics has also opened the door to some novel approaches and insights pioneered by feminist thinkers who argue that traditional moral philosophy has emphasized abstract principles over concrete interpersonal relationships.
Objections/limitations to/of Virtue Ethics
- “How can I flourish?” is just a fancy way of asking “What will make me happy?” This may be a perfectly sensible question to ask, but it isn’t a moral question. It’s a question about one’s self-interest. Morality, though, is all about how we treat other people. So this expansion of ethics to include questions about flourishing takes moral theory away from its proper concern.
- Virtue ethics by itself can’t answer any particular moral dilemma. It doesn’t have the tools to do this. Suppose you have to decide whether or not to tell a lie to save your friend from being embarrassed. Some ethical theories provide you with real guidance. But virtue ethics doesn’t. It just says, “Do what a virtuous person would do” which isn’t much use.
- Morality is concerned, among other things, with praising and blaming people for how they behave. But what sort of character a person has is to quite a large extent a matter of luck. People have a natural temperament: either brave or timid, passionate or reserved, confident or cautious. It is hard to alter these inborn traits. Moreover, the circumstances in which a person is raised is another factor that shapes their moral personality but which is beyond their control. So virtue ethics tends to bestow praise and blame on people for just being fortunate.
